Expansion of Applicable Sphere: A way to Uniformity
——Compare and Contrast between UNIDROIT and UNCITRAL Conventions
By Dongsheng Lu, Chen Yan

I. Introduction

Financing is paramount for the promotion of commerce. It has been noted that “in developed countries the bulk of corporate wealth is locked up in receivables”. As the economy develops, this wealth increasing is “unlocked by transferring receivables across national borders”. With the prompt and great increases in international trade, receivables financing now plays a more and more important role. Yet under the law of many countries, certain forms of receivables financing are still not recognized. Even transactions are involved in countries where the form of receivables financing is permitted, determining which law governs will be difficult. The disparity among laws of different jurisdiction increases uncertainty in transactions, thus constitutes obstacles to the development of assignments of receivables. To remove such obstacles arising from the uncertainty existing in various legal systems and promote the development of receivables financing cross-boarder, a set of uniform rules in this field is required. The international community has made great efforts in adopting uniform laws. Among those efforts, the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) drafted, on 12 December, 2001, “United Nations Convention on the Assignment of Receivables in International Trade” (hereinafter referred to as the “UNCITRAL Convention”), with its aim to “establish principles and to adopt rules relating to the assignment of receivables that would create certainty and transparency and promote the modernization of the law relating to assignments of receivables”. UNCITRAL is not the first international organization attempting to resolve the problems associated with receivables. As early as in May 1988, the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) has already adopted a convention known as the “UNIDROIT Convention on International Factoring” (hereinafter referred to as the “UNIDROIT Convention”).

When compare and contrast between the UNIDROIT Convention and the UNCITRAL Convention, one might see a lot of inconsistency in detailed regulations, e.g. sphere of application, relations between parties, priorities, and choice of law, etc. Given the limited space available in this article, the author may only focus on the difference in “sphere of application” of these two conventions, as sphere of application is perhaps the most fundamental issue of a convention.

The purpose of an international convention is to create uniformity in its covered matter, thus the broader a convention’s sphere of application is, the higher could uniformity reach. This article will try to make compare and contrast the sphere of application between the UNIDROIT Convention and the UNCITRAL Convention, illustrate the differences exist between these two conventions, and demonstrate the expansion of sphere of application in the UNCITRAL Convention and its progress on the way to uniformity.

II. Sphere of Application: Subject Matter

As its title indicates, the subject matter of the UNIDROIT Convention is of course international factoring. Article 1(1) says, “this Convention governs factoring contracts and assignments of receivables as described in this Chapter.”

For “factoring contract”, the UNIDROIT Convention provides the following 4 characteristics:

(1) purpose of the contract is to assign receivables;

(2) receivables to be assigned arises from contracts of sale of goods made between the supplier and its customers (debtors), other than those of sale of goods bought primarily for personal, family or household use;

(3) the factor is to perform at least two of the four functions: (i) finance for the supplier; (ii) maintenance of accounts (ledgering) relating to the receivables; (iii) collection of receivables; and (iv) protection against default in payment by debtors;

(4) notice of the assignment of the receivables is to be given to debtors.

As about “assignments of receivables as described in this Chapter”, article 2 (1) describes assignments of receivables as assignment of receivables pursuant to a factoring contract.

Factoring is just a subset of the receivables financing, and perhaps the oldest and most basic one. Besides factoring, receivables financing still entail the following forms,

(1) Forfeiting, similar to factoring, involves the purchase or discounting of documentary receivables (promissory notes, for example) without recourse to the party from whom the receivables are purchased;

(2) Refinancing, also known as secondary financing, involves the subsequent assignment of receivables. In its basic form, one bank or financier will assign to another bank its interest, with the potential for further assignment;

(3) Securitization, in which both marketable (for example, trade receivables) and non-marketable (consumer credit card receivables) asset cash flows are repackaged by a lender and transferred to a lender-controlled company, which will issue securities, sell and then use the proceeds to purchase the receivables;

(4) Project Finance, in which repayment of loans made by banks or financiers to project contractors for the financing of projects are secured through the future revenues of the project.

The first draft of the UNCITRAL Convention has stated to cover factoring, forfeiting, refinancing, securitization and project finance. Somehow, the working group decides that rather than emphasize the form in which the receivables appear, it would instead concentrate on the way in which the receivables might be transferred (contractual or non-contractual) and the purpose of the transaction (for financing or non-financing purposes). It decides the contractual receivables and assignment made to secure financing and other related services would be covered. The non-contractual receivables such as insurance and tort receivables, deposit bank accounts, or claims arising by operation of law seems are not within the ambits of the UNCITRAL convention.

III. Sphere of Application: Special Requirements

Both of the conventions contain a series of requirements. Only when those requirements are satisfied, could the convention be applied. The higher and stricter the requirements are, the smaller the chance to apply the convention is.

a) Internationality requirement

Both the two conventions indicate their sphere of application is of internationality requirement, but the same word in these two conventions has different legal meaning. The internationality requirement of UNIDROIT Convention is exclusively based upon the parties to the underlying contract, i.e. the contract of sale of goods (the supplier and the debtor) having their place of business in different countries. In other words, where the receivables arise from a contract of sale of goods between a supplier and a debtor whose places of business are in the same State, the UNIDROIT Convention could not apply, no matter the following assignment of receivables is to assignee in the same or different State. Thus leaving the international assignment of domestic receivables untouched. The problem, at its simplest, is twofold: first, inconsistency. For instance, in the case where a bulk assignment is made and where part of the receivables are domestic (supplier and debtor are in the same State) and part are international (supplier and debtor are in different State), if the supplier assigns the receivables to a party which is located in another State, the bulk assignment between the same supplier and the same assignee will be governed by two sets of laws and regulations: the portion of international receivables may be governed by the UNIDROIT Convention while the domestic one will be left to the jurisdiction of certain domestic law.

Secondly, leaving the international assignment of domestic receivables to the jurisdiction of various law systems of different States can make “commercial practice uncertain, time-consuming and expensive”. The assignee of receivables from a foreign State may not know which State’s law governs the transaction, and, if the law of the assignor’s State applies, the assignee’s rights would be subject to the vagaries of that foreign law. This no doubt would greatly impede the development of such transaction.

劳动人事部计划劳动力局


劳动人事部计划劳动力局关于印发十三个地区解决六十年代初期精简职工遗留问题的政策规定资料的通知

1984年12月16日，劳动人事部计划劳动力局

一九八二年二月第三次全国信访工作会议，对带普遍性的遗留问题曾建议各地区要从实际出发，因地制宜，量力而行，有计划、有步骤地研究解决，能解决哪些问题就积极主动地解决哪些问题。不少地区根据上述精神（个别地区在会前就有规定）和地方财力的可能，对一九六一年至一九六五年六月九日期间被精简的一九五七年底以前参加工作的老职工规定了生活困难补助办法，较好地解决了这些地区精简职工的生活困难问题。现把十三个地区的有关规定的资料发给你们，仅供研究问题时作内部参考，不要对外宣传。

附：关于十三个地区解决六十年代初期精简职工遗留问题的政策规定资料

（一）陕西省规定
一、对连续工龄二十年以上的，发给其本人原标准工资数的生活补助费。连续工龄满十五年不满二十年的，发给其本人原标准工资百分之七十的生活补助费；连续工龄满十年不满十五年的，发给其本人原标准工资的百分之六十的生活补助费，低于二十五元的按二十五元发给。以上人员可以享受公费医疗、五元副食品价格补贴。凡工龄不满十年的一九五七年底以前参加工作的老职工和一九五八年以后参加革命工作因工负伤，部分丧失劳动能力而被精简的职工，可发给本人原标准工资的百分之四十生活补助费，不足二十元的按二十元发给，每月发给二元副食品价格补贴，本人的医疗费可以补助三分之二。
二、对一九六○年以前因组织动员回去的建国前参加革命工作的人员，也可以参照上述规定办理。

（二）新疆自治区的规定
一、对一九四九年九月三十日以前参加革命工作被精简的老职工家居城镇的，发给三十元；家居农村的发给二十五元。迁居内地城镇的发给二十五元；迁居内地农村的发给二十元。
二、一九四九年十月一日至一九五七年底参加工作被精简的老职工，家居城镇的发给二十五元；家居农村的发给二十元。迁居内地城镇的发给二十元；迁居内地农村的发给十五元。

（三）四川省的规定
建国后至一九五七年底以前参加工作被精简的老职工，不符合享受百分之四十救济条件而家庭生活确有实际困难，生活低于当地一般社员（居民）水平的，由当地民政部门给予社会救济。城镇每月十至十五元，农村六至十元。
一九四五年九月二日以前参加革命工作的，生活费标准按精简时本人原标准工资百分之百发给，并享受公费医疗待遇；一九四五年九月三日至一九四九年九月三十日参加革命工作的，按精简时本人原标准工资的百分之七十发给，并享受公费医疗待遇。

（四）甘肃省规定
一、一九四九年九月底以前参加工作被精简的职工，当时连续工龄满十五年不满二十年的，按本人原标准工资的百分之七十发给；当时连续工龄满十年不满十五年的，按本人原标准工资的百分之六十发给。低于二十元的按二十元发给。
二、一九五七年至一九六○年下放的老职工，可参照上述规定办理。

（五）青海省的规定
一、抗日战争、解放战争时期参加革命工作的老职工，当时符合一九五八年国务院《关于工人、职员退休处理的暂行规定》，或符合一九七八年国务院104号文件规定的退休条件的，可以改办退休，其中符合一九八二年国务院62号文件规定的，改为离休。家居农村的，本人改为吃商品粮；副食品价格补贴，按居住地区标准发给；医疗费按有关规定办理。
二、凡是抗日战争、解放战争时期参加革命工作，不符合上述第一项规定的，按月发给生活补助费。连续工龄满十五年不满二十年的，按本人原标准工资的百分之七十发给；连续工龄满十年不满十五年的，按本人原标准工资的百分之六十发给。低于二十五元的，按二十五元发给。
一九五七年至一九六○年下放的建国以前参加革命工作的老职工，可参照本规定办理。

（六）云南省的规定
一、一九四二年底以前参加革命工作的，每人每月六十元；一九四三年一月一日至一九四五年九月二日参加革命工作的，每人每月五十元；一九四五年九月三日至一九四九年九月三十日参加革命工作的，每人每月四十元；一九四九年十月一日至一九五二年十二月三十一日参加革命工作的，每人每月三十元；一九五三年一月一日至一九五七年十二月三十一日参加革命工作的，每人每月二十五元。另外，以上人员均可享受5元副食品价格补贴和公费医疗。
二、一九六○年以前因组织动员退职，一九五七年底以前参加革命工作的人员，也可参照上述规定办理。

（七）宁夏自治区的规定
一、对属于一九四九年九月三十日以前参加革命工作的，符合国务院国发〔1982〕62号文件《国务院关于发布老干部离职休养制度的几项规定的通知》规定的，可以改办离休。其中属于一九三七年七月六日前参加革命工作的老干部，改为离休后，如标准工资低于行政十七级标准工资额的，可提高到行政十七级的标准工资额。
二、对改办离休的人员凡已在农村安家落户的原则上不再返城，本人可改吃商品粮，但不转入城镇户口，不再享受安家补助费，建房补助费，也不再招收一名子女参加工作。
三、精简退职职工中，属于一九五七年底前参加革命工作，但不符合上述第一条规定的，按月发给生活困难补助费，连续工龄满十五年以上，按本人标准工资的百分之七十发给；连续工龄满十年不满十五年的，按本人标准工资的百分之六十发给，低于二十五元的按二十五元发给；现在已领取百分之四十生活救济费的人员，符合本规定的，可改按本规定办理。
四、对一九六○年底以前精简退职的人员，连续工龄满十年以上的，可参照本规定办理。
五、精简退职的职工，确属因工致残，丧失劳动能力（当时有医务鉴定证明、证据确凿），可发给本人原工资的百分之六十的生活补助费，低于二十七元的发给二十七元。本人医疗补助三分之二。

（八）上海市一九七八年八月一日的规定
对本市一九六一年至一九六二年精简退职回到外省农村的老职工生活困难补助办法：
一、凡是年老体弱又无依无靠，或虽有子女但无力赡养的，以及家庭人口多，劳动力少，生活困难的，一般都可每月给予定期补助二十元。少数困难程度大的，可略高一些，困难程度小的，可略低一些。
二、回乡老职工本人患严重疾病，应在当地治疗，享受农村合作医疗，对少数治疗费用较大，本人无力负担的，可酌情给予临时补助。
危险房屋的修理，要坚持自力更生、群众互助和依靠集体力量为主，国家帮助为辅的方针，可酌情给予一次性补助，补助金额，最高不超过二百元。
上海市一九八四年九月二十日的规定：
一、建国前参加革命工作，建国后经组织批准退职，本人现无固定收入的干部，凡退职前参加革命工作年限满三年以上的，可按本通知给予生活补助。
二、上述人员按下列标准每人每月发给生活补助费：
一九三七年七月六日以前参加革命工作的，发给六十元；
一九三七年七月七日至一九四二年十二月三十一日参加革命工作的发给五十元；
一九四三年一月一日至一九四五年九月二日参加革命工作的，发给四十元（不包括原在日伪单位服务，一九四五年八月十五日至九月二日期间被我军接管而参加革命工作的干部。但是他们可以享受一九四五年九月三日至一九四九年九月三十日参加革命工作的干部的生活补助待遇）；
一九四五年九月三日至一九四九年九月三十日参加革命工作的，发给三十元。
三、对一九六一年至一九六二年国民经济调整期间精简退职回农村的建国前参加革命工作的干部，每月发给生活补助费标准：连续工龄满二十年的，按本人原标准工资百分之七十五发给；连续工龄满十五年不满二十年的，按本人原标准工资百分之七十发给；连续工龄满十年不满十五年的，按本人原标准工资百分之六十发给。
这部分退职干部如按本条规定计算的生活补助费低于第二条规定标准的，可按第二条规定办理。
四、上述人员除按上面标准发给生活补助外，每人每月另外再发给副食价格补贴五元。
五、上述人员本人参照享受公费医疗待遇。
六、符合本通知规定的条件，已按过去国家有关规定享受生活补助的退职干部，其待遇低于本通知的，可改按本通知执行；高于本通知的，不再变动。

（九）江苏省的规定
一九五七年底以前参加工作，目前无正常收入的精简老职工，可以按月发给生活补助费，其标准：农业户口的每人每月补助十二元，城镇居民户口的每人每月补助十五元。
已经在社、镇以上单位从事亦工亦农劳动的精简老职工，一般不要辞退，也不发给生活补助费。对因年老体弱不能劳动确需辞退的，应经主管部门批准，按现行退休、退职规定办理，不另发生活补助费。其中不符合办理退休、退职的精简老职工，辞退以后的生活补助费，可按上述办法发给。
县属集体单位精简的老职工，可以参照全民所有制企业单位的政策精神，根据本单位的经济情况，量力而行，适当补助。

（十）辽宁省的规定
一、在精简当时不符合享受本人原标准工资百分之四十救济条件而现在却已年老体弱，基本丧失劳动能力，而家庭生活无依靠的，由县（区）民政部门审查批准，给予定期定量救济。居住在农村的每人每月救济十二元，居住在城镇的每人每月救济十六元。

（十一）安徽省的规定
一、老职工在精简退职的当时不符合享受百分之四十救济条件，但现在年老体弱，基本丧失劳动能力，而家庭生活无依靠的（含一九五八年以后参加工作因工致残的精简职工），给予定期救济。家居农村的，每人每月8～10元；家居城镇的每人每月12～15元；省辖市每人每月15～17元。

（十二）湖北省的规定
由全民所有制单位精简退职的一九五七年底以前参加工作，现在年老体弱，基本丧失劳动能力，家庭生活无依靠，又不够享受百分之四十救济条件的退职老职工。其补助标准：大中城市每人每月十四元，城镇每人每月十二元；农村采用不定期或按季给予临时生活补助的办法，每人每年一百二十元。

（十三）湖南省的规定
一、由全民所有制单位精简退职的一九五七年底以前参加工作，现在年老体弱，基本丧失劳动能力，家庭生活无依靠，但又不够享受百分之四十救济条件的精简退职老职工，其补助标准，大、中城市每人每月十二至十四元，城镇每人每月十至十二元，农村每人每月八至十元。